Similarly, pathogens such as some bacteria and viruses have evolved mechanisms to introduce genetic variation in coding regions of their genomes, thereby generating slight alterations to structures of proteins within the pathogen to evade binding by immune cell receptors. Other pathogens, such as trypanosomes have evolved a process known as antigenic variation to change the character of their surface coats. For example, certain parasites have evolved the ability to enter intracellular habitats to avoid the effects of neutralizing antibodies circulating in the blood. Such strategies can often undermine and complicate the development of successful vaccines towards these pathogens. Pathogenic agents such as, infectious bacteria, parasites, fungi, viruses and cancers, have evolved various strategies to evade detection and neutralization by host immune response.
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